American Research Journal of History and Culture

Dr. Thomas W. Smythe

It is generally agreed that science must be based on observations or sense perception. For a theory or hypothesis to be scientific it must be empirically verifiable or falsifiable via the five sense modalities. This paper reprises an article by Fred Dretske that provides conditions under which we have an observation term. It goes on to present and defend an Alternative Approach comparing and contrasting the alternative to Dretske’s account.

Dr. Syed Damsaz Ali Andrabi

Baba Ghulam Shah played a significant role in spreading the teachings of Islam in and around the areas of Rajouri Kashmir. His saintly merits removed the darkness from society, which in return showed a path of peace and tranquility. Because of spiritual attainments,patriotic spirit and soft nature, he was very much popular among the people. Also proved successful socio-religious reformer, while providing justice to the oppressed people. Being the learned Sufi of the time rulers too became his devotees, but he maintained a distance from state politics.Concept of unity and equality was properly disseminated among the commoners irrespective of faith. For this purpose number of educational institutions called as Madrasas were opened . His abode at Shahdara Sharief Rajouri Kashmir became the centre of attention for the people.While propagating the message of Sufism the level of social conflicts got minimized which helped people to establish the responsible government for the overall development of society.Within a short span of time peace and prosperity engulfed the whole area. 

Mengistu Abebe

The complex and diverse feudal land holding and administration system was regarded as the major factor for rural poverty and the backwardness of the country in general. Students and progressive intelligentsia intensified the popular movement in favour of the “land to the tiller” slogan. The March 4, 1975 land reform was expected to promote rural prosperity and social justice (equity). The proclamation abolished the feudal institutions and the land tenure systems. But the overthrow of the feudal regime and the subsequent land reform only brought about the abolition of landlordism and landlessness. The reform did not lead to any significant agricultural development. As a result, the peasantry could not cope with the severe famine of 1984/85. The post-reform agrarian policies were unpopular and failed to stimulate productivity and improvement in living standard of the peasantry. Many socio-economic problems remained unsolved.

E. R. Acharya (PhD)

The mathematics developed before the written recorded history is called antiquity of mathematics. It is the fundamental basis for the historical developments of mathematics. It has greater significance in understanding the people, culture and mathematics in totality. The mathematics is practices very early as old as the human civilization and it is also true for in context of Nepal. In High Himalayan Region there are so many symbols of antiquity of Nepali mathematics. very early mathematics either as rock art or formation of chambers as administrative room. The utensils, fossils and physical contractions of Zhong Kiore Cave of Mustang as evidences. The aim of this paper is to exploration